The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Human malignant cell models which reflect the structural and physiological complexity of tumor tissue are of great importance for preclinical research in oncology. Spheroids/tumoroids derived from solid tumors are of great interest as cellular models mimicking the first vascular-free growth phase of a tumor node. The fact of the identity between artificially created tumor multicellular aggregates and the real tumor tissue, however, needs to be specified, described and validated in order to see how closely the spheroids are biologically similar to the malignized tissues in vivo compared to the monolayer cell cultures traditionally used. We present here a comparison study of the characteristics of solid tumor cells of different histogenesis (melanomas, soft tissue sarcomas and bone sarcomas, epithelial tumors) cultured in two dimensions (monolayer culture) and three dimensional space (spheroid), namely: spatial organization, multiplication, metabolic activity.
For the creation of 2 D and 3D cell models the cells isolated from the patient's solid tumor fragments obtained intraoperatively were used. 15 samples of skin melanoma, 20 samples of soft tissue and osteogenic sarcomas (STBS), and 9 samples of epithelial tumors (ET). The tumor cells were all cultivated for at least 10 passages. We used phase contrast, confocal microscopy, and immunohistochemistry to investigate spheroids and monolayer cultures. The supernatants of tumor cells grown in 2D and 3D cultures were studied using ELISA and multiplex analysis for the production of a spectrum of chemokines and cytokines supporting the immunosuppression, invasion and metastasis processes.
Tumor specimens received were predominantly of metastatic origin (75%). In 100% of cases 2D cultures were received, in 88.6% of cases (39 out of 44) we succeeded in obtaining spheroids. There was no direct correlation between the efficiency of tumoroid formation and the tumor's histogenetic origin and the stage of the cancer process (primary tumor, recurrence, metastasis). The median size of spheroids by 4-5 days of cultivation with a starting concentration of 10000 cells per well was 657.14 μm for melanoma (min 400 - max 1000 μm), 571.42 μm (min 400 - max 700 μm), 507.14 μm (min 300 - max 600 μm) for soft tissue sarcomas, 650.0 μm (min 400 - max 900 μm) for osteogenic sarcomas. Immunochemical analysis of Ki-67, GLUT1, and Ecadherin markers was carried out for tumor tissue samples, single-layer tumor cultures, and tumoroids of every patient. The distribution of the stained groups in the spheroids was distinct from the monolayer cultures and more in accordance with the distribution of such in the tissue tumor, the number of Ki-67+ cells was increasing in the spheroids. We detected no dependence of Ki-67+ and GLUT1+ cell localization grade on spheroid size. We identified E-cadherin in tumor tissue and tumoroids of breast carcinoma and one melanoma culture. Monolayer cultures did not express it. The increase in secretory cell activity of the solid tumor cells from 2D to 3D system was observed when CCL2, CCL3, CXCL1, CXCL16, MIF, IL10, MICA (p<0.01) were investigated.
The presence of patient-specific cells of solid tumors in a 3D environment causes activation of the proliferative and metabolic processes as compared to monolayer cultures, which makes these models approximate the real world clinical picture. The production of chemokines that can attract to the tumor various types of immune system cells, to include their immature versions, as well as production of cytokines and Immunosuppression factors that, when present in the tumor microenvironment in the high concentrations, contribute to the formation of immune cells having suppressive capacities occurs in the 3D cell system. Three-dimensional model of the initial tumor nodule formation stage thus demonstrates the forming process of tumor cells favorable for them microenvironment. Construction of three-dimensional models - spheroids of tumor cells of differing histogenesis demands individual approach and more thorough investigation.
Solid tumors have a complex three-dimensional (3D) spatial structure, including many non-tumoral cells and the extracellular matrix, which together make up the malignant tumor microenvironment
It is now well known that in 3D structures, in addition to the possible chemical gradient's induction, three-dimensional intercellular interaction itself affects the properties of tumor cells. It includes cell structure, adhesion, mechanotransduction, and signal transduction in response to soluble factors, which in turn, regulate the general functions of cells. Altogether it is fundamentally different from traditional 2D cultivation systems
Many researchers believe that the growth kinetics of in vitro tumoroids (microsized cell spheroid aggregates) are similar to the growth kinetics of solid tumors. The initial growth period of solid tumors is called the vasculinless growth phase, during which the tumor volume increases exponentially. It is followed by a quiescent state, and a phase of new vessel formation caused by angiogenic factors
In addition, the use of 3D models will allow all-important tumor characteristics to be taken into account to determine individual patient treatment tactics. This approach will facilitate the study of individual biological features of the tumors and the understanding of cancer biology in general. Here we present a comparative study of the properties of different histogenesis solid tumors cells (melanomas, soft tissue sarcomas, and osteogenic sarcomas, epithelial tumors) cultured in 2D (monolayer culture) and 3D (spheroid), namely, formation features, spatial organization, proliferation, metabolic activity, and cell motility.
Tumor tissue fragments surgically obtained from patients treated at N.N. Petrov National Medicine Research Center of Oncology in 2015-2020 were used as the material for cell cultures: 15 skin melanoma samples, 20 soft tissue and bone sarcoma (STBS) samples (7 osteogenic sarcomas), 1 chondroblastic osteosarcoma, 4 synovial sarcomas, 3 myxofibrosarcomas, 1 pleomorphic liposarcoma, 1 embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma, 1 leiomyosarcoma, 1 alveolar sarcoma, 1 schwannoma) and 9 epithelial tumor samples (3 colorectal cancer, 2 renal cancer, 2 breast cancer, 1 non-small cell lung cancer, 1 bladder cancer). The study protocol was approved by the ethical committee of the Research Centre, all enrolled patients or their legal representatives gave written informed consent to obtain tumor tissue samples during surgery. Tissue samples were stored in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and used in accordance with the Human Tissue Act of 2004. The histological verification of the tumors and their localization are presented in
tumor | primary | recurrence | metastatic | total | ||
melanoma | ||||||
melanotic | spindle cell | 1 | 0 | 1 | soft tissue (1) | 2 |
epithelioid cell | 0 | 0 | 3 | lymph nodes (3) | 3 | |
amelanotic | spindle cell | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
epithelioid cell | 1 | 1 | 7 | soft tissue (3) | 9 | |
lymph nodes (2) | ||||||
thyroid (1) | ||||||
breast(1) | ||||||
STBS subtype | ||||||
osteosarcoma | 0 | 0 | 7 | lung (7) | 7 | |
chondroblastic osteosarcoma | 0 | 0 | 1 | lung (1) | 1 | |
pleomorphic liposarcoma | 0 | 0 | 1 | lung (1) | 1 | |
sinovial sarcoma | 0 | 2 | 2 | lung (2) | 4 | |
myxofibrosarcoma | 1 | 1 | 1 | soft tissue (1) | 3 | |
leiomyosarcoma | 0 | 0 | 1 | lung (1) | 1 | |
rabdomyosarcoma | 0 | 0 | 1 | lung (1) | 1 | |
alveolar sarcoma | 0 | 0 | 1 | lung (1) | 1 | |
schwannoma | 0 | 0 | 1 | lung (1) | 1 | |
epithelial tumors | ||||||
renal cancer | 1 | 0 | 1 | lung (1) | 2 | |
colorectal cancer | 0 | 0 | 3 | lung (2) | 3 | |
extraperitoneal (1) | ||||||
breast cancer | 1 | 0 | 1 | colon (1) | 2 | |
bladder cancer | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | |
lung cancer | 0 | 0 | 1 | pleural cavity (1) | 1 | |
Total | 5 | 6 | 33 | 44 |
Monolayer tumor cells cultures. Freshly obtained tumor samples were mechanically disaggregated using Medimachine (Agilent Dako, USA) and passed through Filcon filter system with pore size 70 μm and 50 μm (BD Biosciences, USA). The cells were plated in DMEM/F12 media supplemented with 20% fetal bovine serum (FBS), glutamine (365 mg/l), insulin (5 μg/ml), transferrin (5 μg/ml), selenium (5 ng/ml) (Termo Fisher Scientific, CША), penicillin (100 UI/ml), streptomycin (100 μg/ml) (Sigma, CША). The tumor cells were cultured at 37 ◦C, 5% CO2, and 100% humidity in plastic flasks following the Freshney method
Spheroids were obtained using a liquid overlay technique with a 96-well black plate with glass bottom Ultra-Low Attachment Surface (Corning, USA). Typically, 10,000 cells in 200 μl of complete nutrient medium were placed in the plate wells. Tumoroids were cultured in Heracel CO2 incubator (Thermo Electron LTD GmbH, Germany) for 3 to 8 days depending on the cell line at 37ºC, in a humid atmosphere with a 5% CO2 level. During cultivation, the medium was changed on day 3. At the end of cultivation, spheroids were washed in PBS solution (pH 7.4) for further manipulations.
Confocal microscopy techniques were used to study spheroids' structure. The washed spheroids were fixed with 10% buffered formaldehyde and stored at 4ºC for 24 h, and further stained with fluorescent dyes Phalloidin-Alexa488/PI at concentrations of 2 µM and 4 µM, respectively
Spheroids were fixed with 10% buffered formaldehyde at 4 °C for 24-36 h, then placed in 4% agar (Difco, USA), dehydrated with absolute isopropyl alcohol, and embedded in paraffin (Histomix, Biovitrum, RF). Serial paraffin sections no thicker than 4 μm using an SM2000R microtome (Leica, Germany) were made. Every tenth slice was stained with Meyer's hematoxylin and eosin for object detection.
Malignified cells grown in a monolayer on culture glasses under standard conditions were fixed in absolute acetone for 2-3 min, air-dried, placed in airtight containers, and stored at -20°C until use.
Tumor tissue samples were fixed with 10% buffered formalin for 24 hours, dehydrated with absolute isopropyl alcohol, and embedded in paraffin (Biovitrum, Russia). Paraffin blocks of tumor tissue were treated as described above. Material from 10 patients was included in the study.
Ki-67, GLUT-1, and E-cadherin antigen detection were performed in paraffin sections of tumor tissue, monolayer tumor cultures, and tumoroids. GLUT1 Rabbit Polyclonal Antibody (Abcam, USA), Cadherin Mouse monoclonal antibody and Ki-67 Mouse Monoclonal Antibody (Diagnostic BioSystems, USA) were used as primary antibodies. EnVision FLEX HRP (Aglient Dako, Denmark) was used as a secondary antibody. The preparations were stained with hematoxylin (Ventana Medical Systems, Inc., Germany).
Digital images were obtained using a Digital scanning microscope Panoramic 1000 (3DHISTECH Ltd., Hungary). Lens: Carl-Zeiss Plan-Apochromat 40×Corr / NA 0.95. Camera: Adimec QUARTZ Q-12A180 with resolution 69 Mp/mm2, using CaseViewer 2.2.1 software (3DHISTECH Ltd., Hungary).
Supernatants of monolayer cell cultures (2D) and spheroids (3D) were tested. Conditioned medium was collected 7 days after the beginning of cultivation. Tumor cell culture supernatants were stored at -20°C and thawed at 4°C immediately before determining the concentration of the test substances. Sandwich-type enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay Duoset ELISA Kit (R&D Systems, USA) was used to detect NKG2D receptor-ligand of cytotoxic Tlymphocytes and natural killer MICA. The optical density in each well was measured at 450 nm using a Thermo Scientific Multiscan EX microplate reader (Thermo LabSystems Inc., USA). Transformation Growth factor β1 (TGF β1) was detected with Bender MedSystems GmbH, Austria.
A Bio-Plex® 200 multiplex analyzer (Bio-Rad, USA) and a Bio-Plex Pro™ Human Chemokine Panel, 40-Plex (Bio-Rad, USA) were used to detect major cytokines and chemokines in supernatants of 2D and 3D tumor cell cultures. The concentrations of the following analytes were analyzed: 6Ckine/CCL21, BCA1/CXCL13, CTACK/CCL27, ENA-78/CXCL5, Eotaxin/CCL11, Eotaxin-2/CCL24, Eotaxin3/CCL26, Fractalkine/CX3CL1, GCP-2/CXCL6, GM-CSF, Gro-α/CXCL1, Gro-β CXCL2, I309/CCL1, IFN-ϒ, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8/CXCL8, IL-10, IL-16, IP-10/CXCL10, ITAC/CXCL11, MCP-1/CCL2, MCP-2/CCL8, MCP-3/CCL7, MCP-4/CCL13, MDC/CCL22, MIF, MIG/CXCL9, MIP-1α/CCL3, MIP-1δ/CCL15, MIP-3α/CCL20, MIP-3β/CCL19, MPIF1/CCL23, SCYB16/CXCL16, SDF-1α+β/CXCL12, TARC/CCL17, TECK/CCL25, TNF-α.
Data were statistically analyzed using Wilcoxon W-test for connected samples. Differences were considered statistically significant at p<0.05 For data storage, processing, statistical analysis, and visualization Microsoft Excel 2019 (Microsoft Corporation, USA) was used. Systematization, statistical analysis, and data visualization were performed using R v. 4.0.1.
Tumor cell cultures. As a result of tumor fragments disaggregation, 15 cultures of skin melanoma, 20 STBS cultures, 8 cultures of epithelial tumors cells were obtained, as described in the "Materials and Methods" section. Seventy-five percent of the samples were of metastatic origin (33 of 44), 11.4% were obtained from the primary tumor (5 of 44) and 13.6% were from recurrent disease (6 of 44). Morphologically, all the obtained tumor cultures were highly heterogeneous within the same histological type (
Adhesion growth was typical for all tumor cultures except breast cancer culture # 973, with a semi-suspension growth type that tended to spontaneously form rounded cell aggregates resembling spheroids.
Spheroid formation. During the Liquid overlay technique cultivation, three stages of spheroid formation were observed. For 1-2 days the tumor cells formed disc-like structures at the bottom of the well. On days 2-3, they united into unstable cell aggregates with uneven edges, which could be destroyed by any physical impact. On days 3-5, the aggregates gained cell mass and, as a rule, formed a dense rounded spheroid with smooth edges (
Direct dependence of tumoroid formation efficacy on the histogenesis of tumor cells and the stage of the carcinogenesis the material was taken (primary tumor, relapse, metastasis) was not revealed. The process had an individual character and depended on the internal properties of particular cell culture. Among the cultured melanoma cells (MC), only in one (6.7%) aggregation was not observed; 5 cultures demonstrated the formation of loose, weakly stable spheroids (33.3%); in some cases, the cell aggregate retained rather a disk-like rather than a spherical shape. The rest of MC samples (60%) formed dense stable spheroids, often with a well-defined marginal zone (
The average size of spheroids by 4-5 days of cultivation with a starting concentration of 10,000 cells per well was 657.14 μm for melanoma (min 400 - max 1000 μm), 571.42 μm for soft tissue sarcomas (min 400 - max 700 μm), 507.14 microns for osteogenic sarcomas (min 300 - max 600 microns), and 650.0 microns for epithelial tumors (min 400 - max 900 microns).
Spheroidal organization. According to confocal microscopy, the structural organization of spheroids from different histogenesis tumor cells had similar features (
In the central zone of tumoroids, cells showed a typical mesenchymal morphology, characterized by an elongated form and rich F-actin outgrowths, traced throughout the tumoroid. On the periphery, there were predominantly rounded proliferating cells without outgrowths, but with increased F-actin expression, which may indicate a high potential for invasion. Different intensity of F-actin expression was found in tumoroids of various origins, and it was least expressed in STBS spheroids (
Proliferative and metabolic features of tumor cells in 2D and 3D experimental systems.
Immunochemical analysis of Ki-67 (cell proliferation marker), GLUT1 (unidirectional glucose transporter), and E-cadherin, (intercellular contacts) was carried out in tumor tissue samples, monolayer cultures, and tumoroids of each patient.
Analysis of monolayer tumor cultures preparations stained with Mayer's hemalaun and eosin showed that the cultured tumor cells were well spread and occupied a significant area (
The distribution of Ki-67+ and GLUT1+ cells in the spheroid structure was individual even within tumors of similar histogenesis, in particular, in the spheroids of myxofibrosarcoma, osteosarcoma, and melanoma (
Culture | Spheroid diameter, μm | ANTIGENS | ||||||||
KI-67 (% stain cells) | GLUT1 (+present/-absent) | E-cadherin (+present/-absent) | ||||||||
tumor | 2D | 3D/localisation | tumor | 2D | 3D/localisation | tumor | 2D | 3D | ||
#699leiomyosarcoma | 310,8 | 22 | 10 | 15diffuse | + | - | +diffuse | - | - | - |
#862 rabdomyosarcoma | 612 | 12 | 5 | 14diffuse | ± | - | ++spheroid centre | - | - | - |
#716 synovialsarcoma | 620,7 | 65 | 70 | 78spheroid centre | + | - | +spheroid centre | - | - | - |
#728myxofibrosarcoma | 550,6 | 25 | 12 | 35diffuse | + | - | +spheroid centre | - | - | - |
#982myxofibrosarcoma | 611,8 | 45 | 18 | 78diffuse | ++ | ± | ++diffuse | - | - | - |
#793osteosarcoma | 417,2 | 52 | 10 | 12diffuse | ± | - | ±diffuse | - | - | - |
ОС #921osteosarcoma | 752,7 | 48 | 5 | 45spheroid periphery | + | - | ++spheroid centre | - | - | - |
#912 melanoma | 683 | 67 | 80 | 85 - spheroid periphery | ++ | - | ++spheroid centre | - | - | - |
10 – spheroid centre | ||||||||||
#929 melanoma | 680,8 | 45 | 25 | 55diffuse | ++ | ± | ±diffuse | + | - | ± |
#973 breast cancer | 690 | 88 | no data | 93diffuse | +++ | no data | +++diffuse | ++ | no data | ++ |
The number of Ki-67+ cells in monolayer cultures was lower than in spheroids and/or in tumor tissue. In most cases, an increase in the number of Ki-67+ cells correlated with an increase in the tumoroid size. It can be assumed that the presence of spheroid architecture, more complex in comparison with monolayer cultures, as well as the presence of a nutrient gradient, and necrotic nucleus inside, increases the expression of this factor. In spheroids, peripheral localization of Ki67+ cells (
It is assumed that tumoroids can represent a model of a hypoxic niche of tumor cells in vitro. Increased hypoxia in tumors induces GLUT-1 protein expression, carrying out unidirectional glucose transport across the plasma membrane. GLUT-1 expression in tumor spheroids and tumor tissue was found. No GLUT-1 expression in all monolayer samples was revealed, except in melanoma #929, where weak cytoplasm staining in 7% of cells was observed.
In several cases, GLUT-1 gradient distribution in spheroids was revealed (
E-cadherin in breast cancer #973 tumor tissue and tumoroids was revealed (
Secretory functions in spheroids cells. Statistically significant differences in the secretory activity in 2D and 3D cultures of solid tumor cells in CCL2 study were observed (a powerful factor of monocyte chemotaxis in mammals). CCL2 mean concentration in the conditioned medium of spheroids was 1707.16 pg/ml (min 150.74 - max 6316.8), while in the supernatant of monolayer cultures - 848.79 pg/ml (min 4.91 - max 1973.08); p = 0.04126 (
MIF secretion (a factor inhibiting macrophages migration, an evolutionarily ancient cytokine that regulates many processes in the body, i.e., inflammation) also changed depending on the cultivation conditions: 33.55 ng/ml (min 30.84 - max 82.66) in 2D cultures up to 62.05 ng/ml (min 37.69 - max 175.31) in spheroids (p = 0.00854) (
A statistically significant increase in Interleukin 10 (IL10) expression (plays a role in tumor-induced immunosuppression) was observed in 3D culture compared to the monolayer: the median was 116.71 pg/ml (min 7.70 - max 649.19) and 17.32 pg/ml (min 1.42 - max 107.39), p = 0.00006, respectively (
Studying the remaining analytes, no statistically significant differences were found in general, but individual analysis showed interesting features for tumor cells in individual patients. An almost 4-fold increase in chemokine CCL21 level, which under normal conditions is a chemoattractant for naive T-lymphocytes possessing CCR7 receptor, was found in spheroid supernatants of myxofibrosarcoma #728 (2D / 3D - 246.61 / 891.25 pg/ml). An increase in CCL21 concentration in kidney cancer # 291 tumoroids was observed (2D / 3D - 357.76 / 428.64 pg/ml). Chemoattractant for B-lymphocytes CXCL13 was detected in high concentrations in the supernatants of myxofibrosarcoma #728 and lung cancer #1014 cultures (
Analytes, pg/ml | Cultures | |||||||
#728 | #1014 | #862 | #916 | |||||
2D | 3D | 2D | 3D | 2D | 3D | 2D | 3D | |
CCL1 | 28,7 | 86,6↑ | 288,6 | 51,5 | 38,3 | 38,6↑ | 71,7 | 74,9↑ |
CCL2 | 37,9 | 6316,8↑ | 3032,5 | 1006,9 | 7338,5 | 2522,1 | 2618,1 | 2582,9 |
CCL3 | 9,1 | 1230,3↑ | 16,3 | 42,9↑ | 1,3 | 1,9↑ | 3,1 | 11,7↑ |
CCL7 | 33,3 | 358,1↑ | 542,2 | 4323,8↑ | 702,2 | 4458,9↑ | 194,7 | 210,7↑ |
CCL8 | 0,58 | 3620,3↑ | 697,4 | 632,5 | 6302,6 | 158,6 | 2,5 | 2,7↑ |
CCL11 | 10,8 | 33,6↑ | 37,6 | 24,6 | 224,6 | 45,5 | 25,7 | 24,9 |
CCL13 | 67,4 | 117,7↑ | 376,9 | 223,7 | 379,1 | 273,6 | 106,6 | 71,9 |
CCL15 | 11,6 | 580,7↑ | 357,4 | 58,9 | 14,6 | 15,6↑ | 127,1 | 154,7↑ |
CCL17 | 7,1 | 57,3↑ | 64,9 | 20,8 | 15,03 | 16,1 | 26,1 | 27,8↑ |
CCL19 | 46,9 | 190,2↑ | 199,8 | 155,8 | 235,8 | 99,5 | 141,4 | 131,5 |
CCL20 | 11,8 | 6300,3↑ | 28,9 | 443,1↑ | 4,7 | 106,2↑ | 2177,8 | 3730,8↑ |
CCL21 | 246,6 | 891,3↑ | 620,7 | 535,2 | 446,5 | 468,4↑ | 743,9 | 767,9↑ |
CCL22 | 15,3 | 251,2↑ | 4954,3 | 194,1 | 148,6 | 32,9 | 30,7 | 28,4 |
CCL23 | 4,3 | 24,5↑ | 490,1 | 25,4 | 8,6 | 9,3↑ | 19,3 | 19,3 |
CCL24 | 45,8 | 77,5↑ | 617,6 | 73,4 | 48,8 | 56,2↑ | 69,4 | 65,1 |
CCL25 | 103,7 | 906,4↑ | 524,1 | 529,2↑ | 222,4 | 328,7↑ | 639,6 | 705,3↑ |
CCL26 | 1040,8 | 28524↑ | 215,9 | 577,6↑ | 46,7 | 782,2↑ | 90,3 | 107,2↑ |
CCL27 | 8,5 | 47,3↑ | 28,5 | 25,9 | 18,36 | 15,3 | 24,1 | 22,3 |
CXCL1* | 7,3 | 15,7↑ | 26,4 | 45,7↑ | 4,8 | 15,1↑ | 10,6 | 53,4↑ |
CXCL2 | 386,6 | 10328↑ | 1162,7 | 4033,5↑ | 86,4 | 1040,9↑ | 578,1 | 236,2 |
CXCL5 | 1394,3 | 15382↑ | 11782 | 9469,7 | 2026,6 | 2160,1↑ | 2702,7 | 2107,6 |
CXCL6 | 16,3 | 502,9↑ | 5678,5 | 12311,8↑ | 1038,8 | 6279,6↑ | 42,5 | 46,8↑ |
CXCL9 | 14,7 | 4773,6↑ | 12378 | 904,4 | 37,9 | 41,7↑ | 72,03 | 69,05 |
CXCL10 | 22,2 | 16798↑ | 644,1 | 16164↑ | 28,2 | 27,9 | 3099,3 | 4888,4↑ |
CXCL11 | 8,8 | 3320,2↑ | 403,3 | 65,1 | 3,07 | 4,09↑ | 141,8 | 235,8↑ |
CXCL12 | 316,4 | 6454,8↑ | 517,1 | 4796,9↑ | 170,9 | 264,3↑ | 215,2 | 216,3↑ |
CXCL13 | 0,48 | 5,65↑ | 40,6 | 2,38 | 1,21 | 1,13 | 3,36 | 3,79↑ |
CXCL16 | 5,4 | 177,51↑ | 575,1 | 408,6 | 151,5 | 43,9 | 11,5 | 11,0 |
CX3CL1 | 71,4 | 3002,4↑ | 126,6 | 361,9↑ | 40,6 | 184,8↑ | 3611,6 | 4952,4↑ |
GM-CSF | 624,7 | 15277↑ | 30,1 | 37,1↑ | 37,9 | 24,5 | 68,4 | 68,8↑ |
IFN-ϒ | 13,8 | 117,5↑ | 45,9 | 36,8 | 24,08 | 26,1↑ | 77,5 | 85,3↑ |
IL-1β | 11,9 | 35,1↑ | 17,5 | 19,3↑ | 21,03 | 20,7 | 27,7 | 23,9 |
IL-2 | 3,5 | 29,02↑ | 17,3 | 9,65 | 6,4 | 7,2↑ | 19,9 | 23,8↑ |
IL-4 | 10,6 | 41,8↑ | 13,01 | 10,05 | 7,5 | 9,6↑ | 12,7 | 12,07 |
IL-6* | 0,2 | 34,08↑ | 25,3 | 36,1↑ | 36,5 | 25,1 | 5,09 | 1,7 |
IL-8 | 2668,2 | 10128↑ | 8787,7 | 9231,4↑ | 8886,9 | 9589,8↑ | 9699,5 | 7426,1 |
IL-10 | 26,3 | 61,3↑ | 75,3 | 51,4 | 34,2 | 41,1↑ | 59,03 | 502,8↑ |
Tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) expression in melanomas' tumoroids was increased in comparison with other groups of tumors. In particular, in culture #860 cells the production of this factor was increased from 4.88 pg/ml (monolayer) to 8.43 pg/ml (tumoroids); in culture #929 - from 4.51 pg/ml to 15.17 pg/ml; in culture #916 - from 15.82 pg/ml to 54.26 pg/ml; in culture #912 - from 5.46 pg/ml to 21.48 pg/ml; and culture #519 - from 0.51 pg/ml ml to 5.77 pg/ml.
No statistically significant increase in TGFβ1 in 3D culture compared to 2D was observed for all types of tumors: 2.123 (0.948–4.174) ng/ml in spheroids versus 2.478 (0.594–5.57) ng/ml in the monolayer, p = 0.46829. However, when analyzed individually, TGF-β1 production was doubled in 3D culture of LMS # 699 cells compared to 2D culture (1.53 ng/ml and 0.69 ng/ml, respectively). A similar trend was found in melanoma #912 cells - 3D / 2D 3.82 ng/ml and 2.47 ng/ml, respectively; in myxofibrosarcoma #728 cells - 3D / 2D 2.91 ng/ml and 3.73 ng/ml, respectively; in lung cancer #1014 cells - 3D / 2D 1.92 ng/ml and 2.37 ng/ml, respectively.
Nowadays in preclinical trials, 3D in vitro models are becoming more in demand for the development of new drugs and therapeutic approaches in malignancy treatment
One of the directions is the study of malignant neoplasms cells isolated from patients in three-dimensional biological systems in order to recreate the molecular complexity of carcinogenic mechanisms and search for ways to increase sensitivity to pharmacological treatment
In the current study, we performed a comparative analysis of the efficiency of spheroids formation from various histogenesis solid tumor cells, isolated from the patients, and changes in the properties of cultured malignant cells, depending on the spatial organization of the cell model in vitro. We studied the ability to form spheroids in 15 skin melanoma cultures, 20 STBS, 9 epithelial origin tumor cultures.
We obtained malignant cells cultures of various histogenesis with stable proliferative characteristics and passed at least 10 passages. All the obtained cultures were used to create spheroids; however, in a number of cases, stable spheroids were not formed. The overall efficiency of spheroid formation was 88.6% (39 out of 44), and did not depend on the histogenesis, but was probably associated with the stage of oncogenesis. Interestingly, the first works on the study of solid tumor spheroid formation have already indicated the genetic determination of malignant cells in the process of tumor progression. Thus, in J.M. Yuhas et al. (1978) study of breast cancer cell lines, spheroids formation was shown for cells isolated from primary and metastatic solid foci, in contrast to cells from pleural effusion and ascitic fluid
The spheroid formation process consists of at least three phases: initial aggregation of isolated cells, compaction of the spheroid, and its growth. Our observations coincide with other researchers' opinions 25–27. It was found that cells in spheroids, as in tumors, deposit extracellular matrix components: collagen IV, laminin, fibronectin, proteoglycans, tenascin, etc.
We did not detect E-cadherin expression in STBS and melanomas tumoroids. Normally, E-cadherin is expressed on the surface of epithelial cells, promoting the formation of the tight junction between cells
Many researchers believe that the kinetics of tumoroid growth in vitro is similar to the kinetics of solid tumors growth in vivo. The initial period of solid tumor growth is called the phase of avascular growth. During this period the tumor volume increases exponentially, then plateaus, followed by a phase of new vessels formation caused by angiogenic factors
In the literature, one can find the opinion that, as solid tumors, spheroids are characterized by certain cellular zoning, the presence of which becomes more pronounced with an increase in the spheroid size. The outer layer is described with rapidly proliferating cells, the middle layer with senescent or dormant cells, and the inner layer containing necrotic cells
The microenvironment in the inner part of the spheroid is acidified (pH range 6.5-7.2) due to the active pyruvate to lactate convert by tumor cells in hypoxia
We carried out a comparative study of the structure of spheroids consisting of different histotype origin malignant cells. We used proliferation marker Ki67 and the metabolic marker - glucose transporter protein GLUT1, which carries out unidirectional glucose transfer through the membrane under hypoxic conditions. In our 3D models, Ki-67 distribution was of two varieties: peripheral in the case when proliferating cells were concentrated in the marginal zone of the spheroid, and diffuse throughout the thickness of the tumoroid. In the study of human chondrosarcoma multicellular spheroids A. Voissiere et al. (2017) noted that on the 7th day of cultivation, Ki-67 distribution in the spheroids was uniform, while with the growth of the spheroid (14th and 20th days of cultivation) Ki-67 was mainly localized in the periphery
M. Vinci et al. have demonstrated GLUT-1 uniform distribution in spheroids
Tumor cells are in constant interaction with the surrounding microenvironment, and in a sense, a tumor can be considered as a kind of multicomponent “ecosystem” where malignant cells optimize microenvironmental resources to create the best conditions for their proliferation
In 3D systems, CCR2 and CCR3 chemokines production was increased. As is known, CCL2–CCR2 signaling pathway is associated with the recruitment of macrophages and regulatory T-lymphocytes into the tumor
The interaction of MICA ligand on tumor cells with NKG2D activation receptor on NK cells and cytotoxic T-lymphocytes leads to their activation with subsequent elimination of tumor cells. However, in most tumors MICA ligand is overproduced causing the “sloughing off” of stress-induced MICA molecules from the surface of malignant cells. Thenafter the interaction of immune cells with such a soluble form of the molecule, leads to the loss of their effector functions
We have observed an increase in Interleukin-10 production. It promotes the recruitment and activation of regulatory T-lymphocytes (Treg), the acquisition of a tolerogenic phenotype by dendritic cells, and suppression of the activity of CD8+ T-lymphocytes and NK cells
Cell models of human malignant neoplasms reflecting the structural and physiological complexity of tumor tissue are very important for preclinical studies in oncology. Our studies have demonstrated that in contradiction to monolayer cultures, the existence of a 3D environment of solid tumor cells of the patients leads to the activation of proliferative and metabolic processes, bringing these models closer to a real clinical situation. In a 3D cellular system, the synthetic activity of tumor cells is enhanced. On the one hand, that leads to the increased production of various chemokines capable of attracting various types of immune cells, including their immature forms. On the other hand, cytokines and immunosuppression factors begin to produce more active and being present in the tumor microenvironment in high concentrations, contribute to the formation of cells of the immune system with suppressive potential. Tumoroid cells show signs of increased proliferative activity, mobility, invasion potential, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Thus, it becomes clear that 3D spheroids creation from tumor cells of various histogenesis requires an individual approach and more in-depth study.
All authors participated in the design and writing of the manuscript.
This work was financially supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (Project #18- 29-09014) to the Irina Baldueva